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In 2019, Rodolfo Novak despatched a Bitcoin transaction from Toronto to Michigan with out web or satellite tv for pc. He used a ham radio, the 40-meter band, and the ionosphere as his relay.

Nick Szabo known as it “Bitcoin despatched over nationwide border with out web or satellite tv for pc, simply nature’s ionosphere.” The transaction was tiny, the setup finicky, and the use case borderline absurd.

But, it proved one thing: the protocol doesn’t care what carries its packets.

That experiment sits at one finish of a decade-long stress check the Bitcoin group runs quietly within the background, a distributed R&D program testing whether or not the community can perform when the standard infrastructure fails.

Satellites broadcast blocks to dishes throughout continents. Mesh radios relay transactions throughout neighborhoods with out the necessity for ISPs. Tor routes site visitors round censors. Ham operators faucet out hexadecimal over shortwave.

These aren’t manufacturing methods. They’re fireplace drills for situations most cost networks deal with as edge instances.

The query driving all of it: if the web fragments, how briskly can Bitcoin come again on-line?

Satellites give Bitcoin an impartial clock

Blockstream Satellite tv for pc broadcasts the complete Bitcoin blockchain 24/7 by way of 4 geostationary satellites overlaying most populated areas.

A node with a reasonable dish and a Ku-band receiver can sync blocks and keep in consensus even when native ISPs go darkish.

The system is one-way and low-bandwidth, nevertheless it solves a particular downside: throughout regional blackouts or censorship, nodes want an impartial supply of reality for the ledger state.

The satellite tv for pc API extends this additional. Anybody can uplink arbitrary information, together with signed transactions, from floor stations for international broadcast. goTenna partnered with Blockstream to let customers compose transactions on offline Android telephones, relay them by way of native mesh, then hand them to a satellite tv for pc uplink that broadcasts with out touching the broader web.

The bandwidth is horrible, however the independence is absolute.

This issues as a result of satellites present an “out-of-band” channel. When common routing fails, nodes scattered throughout completely different continents can nonetheless obtain the identical chain tip from area, offering a shared reference level for rebuilding consensus as soon as terrestrial hyperlinks return.

Mesh and LoRa construct Bitcoin backhaul at human scale

Mesh networks take a unique method: as a substitute of broadcasting from orbit, they relay packets device-to-device throughout quick hops till one node with web entry rebroadcasts to the broader community. TxTenna, constructed by goTenna, demonstrated this in 2019.

Customers ship signed transactions over a mesh community from offline telephones, hopping node to node till reaching an exit level. Coin Heart documented the structure: every hop extends attain with out requiring any participant to have direct web entry.

Lengthy-range LoRa mesh pushes this idea additional. Locha Mesh, began by Bitcoin Venezuela, builds radio nodes that kind an IPv6 mesh over license-free bands.

The {hardware}, Turpial and Harpia units, can carry messages, Bitcoin transactions, and even block sync over a number of kilometers with out an web connection.

Exams in catastrophe zones proved profitable crypto transactions throughout multi-hop networks the place mobile and fiber had been each down.

Darkwire fragments uncooked Bitcoin transactions into small packets and relays them hop-by-hop over LoRa radios. Every node reaches roughly 10 kilometers of line of sight, turning a neighborhood of hobbyist radios into advert hoc Bitcoin infrastructure.

City vary drops to a 3 to five kilometers vary, however that’s sufficient to route round localized outages or censorship chokepoints.

Tutorial tasks like LNMesh prolonged this logic to Lightning Community funds, demonstrating offline micropayments over native wi-fi mesh throughout energy outages.

The volumes are small and the setups fragile, however they set up the precept: Bitcoin’s bodily layer is fungible. So long as there exists a path between the nodes, the protocol capabilities.

Tor and ham radio fill the gaps

Tor represents the center floor between the common web and unique radio. Since Bitcoin Core 0.12, nodes routinely begin a hidden service if a neighborhood Tor daemon is working, accepting connections by way of .onion addresses even when ISPs block recognized Bitcoin ports.

The Bitcoin Wiki and Jameson Lopp’s setup guides doc dual-stack configurations wherein nodes route site visitors over each clearnet and Tor concurrently, complicating efforts to censor Bitcoin site visitors on the ISP degree.

Specialists warn in opposition to working nodes solely over Tor as a consequence of eclipse-attack dangers, however utilizing it as one routing choice amongst a number of considerably raises the price of blocking Bitcoin infrastructure.

Ham radio sits on the far finish of the spectrum. Past Novak’s ionosphere experiment, operators have relayed Lightning funds by way of novice radio frequencies.

These exams contain manually encoding transactions, transmitting them over HF bands utilizing protocols like JS8Call, then decoding and rebroadcasting on the opposite facet.

The throughput is laughable by fashionable requirements, however the level isn’t effectivity. The purpose is demonstrating that Bitcoin can transfer throughout any medium able to carrying small information packets, together with ones that predate the web by a long time.

What a worldwide partition really seems like

Current modeling explores what occurs throughout a chronic international web outage.

One state of affairs splits the community into three areas, Americas, Asia-Pacific, and Europe-Africa, with roughly 45%, 35%, and 20% of hash fee, respectively.

Every partition’s miners proceed producing blocks whereas adjusting the problem independently. Native exchanges construct their very own charge markets and order books on diverging chains.

Inside every partition, Bitcoin continues working. Transactions confirmed, balances up to date, native commerce proceeds, however solely inside that island. Cross-border commerce freezes. When connectivity returns, nodes face a number of legitimate chains.

The consensus rule is deterministic: comply with the chain with essentially the most cumulative proof of labor. Weaker partitions are reorganized, and a few latest transactions are faraway from international historical past.

If the outage lasts hours to a day and the hash distribution isn’t wildly skewed, the result’s short-term chaos adopted by convergence as bandwidth returns and blocks propagate.

Extended outages create the danger that social coordination will override protocol guidelines, exchanges, or that enormous miners will select their most popular historical past. Nonetheless, even that is still seen and rule-bound in ways in which conventional monetary reconciliation just isn’t.

Banks don’t have fireplace drills for this

Distinction that with what occurs when cost infrastructure breaks. TARGET2’s 10-hour outage in October 2020 delayed SEPA recordsdata and compelled central banks to handle liquidity and collateral manually.

Visa’s Europe-wide failure in June 2018 noticed 2.4 million UK card transactions fail outright and ATMs run dry inside hours after a single information heart swap died.

The ECB’s TARGET system suffered one other main outage in February 2025, prompting exterior audits after backup methods did not activate.

IMF and BIS documentation on CBDC and RTGS resilience explicitly warns that large-scale energy or community outages can concurrently hit major and backup information facilities, and that centralized cost methods require advanced business-continuity planning to keep away from systemic disruption.

The architectural distinction issues. Each Bitcoin node holds a full copy of the ledger and validation guidelines.

After any outage, as quickly as it may possibly talk with different nodes, by way of satellite tv for pc, Tor, mesh, or restored ISP, it merely asks: what’s the heaviest legitimate chain?

The protocol defines the decision mechanism. No central operator reconciles competing databases.

Banks rely on a layered, centralized infrastructure comprising core banking ledgers, RTGS methods similar to Fedwire and TARGET, card networks, ACH, and clearinghouses.

Restoration entails replaying queued transactions, reconciling mismatched snapshots, generally manually adjusting balances, then bringing tons of of intermediaries again into sync.

Visa’s 2018 outage took hours to diagnose regardless of a full-time operations crew. The ECB’s TARGET incidents required exterior evaluations and multi-month remediation plans.

Bitcoin practices for worst-case situations

So, in a disaster, a believable state of affairs emerges: a subset of miners and nodes stays synchronized by way of satellite tv for pc and radio, sustaining an authoritative chain tip whilst fiber and cellular networks fail.

As connectivity returns in patches, native nodes pull lacking blocks and reorganize to that chain inside minutes to hours.

In the meantime, banks determine which cost batches settled, reschedule missed ACH recordsdata, and watch for RTGS methods to finish end-of-day reconciliation earlier than reopening totally.

This doesn’t imply Bitcoin “wins” immediately. Card rails and money nonetheless matter for shoppers. However as a worldwide settlement layer, it would attain a constant state sooner than a patchwork of nationwide cost methods, exactly as a result of it’s been working steady fireplace drills for world-scale failure modes.

The ham operators tapping out transactions over shortwave, the Venezuelan mesh nodes routing sats throughout blackout neighborhoods, the satellites broadcasting blocks to dishes pointed on the sky, and these aren’t manufacturing infrastructure.

They’re proof that when the standard pipes break, Bitcoin has a Plan B. And a Plan C. And a Plan D that entails the ionosphere.

The banking system nonetheless treats infrastructure failures as uncommon edge instances. Bitcoin is treating it as a design constraint.